# Gastrointestinal, Hepatobiliary, Renal & Endocrine Combining Forms (gastr/o, hepat/o, nephr/o)

> 32 review cards on gastrointestinal, hepatobiliary, pancreatic, urinary, female and male reproductive, obstetric, and endocrine Greek/Latin combining forms, including biliary and renal pathologies, GTPAL charting, menstrual and pelvic floor disorders, and metabolic syndromes.

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- **Level:** intermediate
- **Languages:** en → en
- **Total Cards:** 32

## Flashcards (32 Cards)

| # | Front (Term / Prompt) | Back (Definition / Answer) | Example | Multiple-Choice Options |
| :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- |
| 1 | What do the urinalysis terms 'Hematuria', 'Pyuria', 'Bacteriuria', 'Proteinuria (Albuminuria)', 'Glycosuria', and 'Ketonuria' mean? | 'Hematuria' = red blood cells in urine; 'Pyuria' (py/o = pus) = white blood cells/leukocytes in urine; 'Bacteriuria' = bacteria in urine; 'Proteinuria / Albuminuria' = protein/albumin in urine (glomerular damage); 'Glycosuria' (glycos/o = sugar) = glucose in urine; 'Ketonuria' = ketone bodies in urine (starvation or DKA). |  |  |
| 2 | What do the vulvar, perineal, and breast combining forms 'episi/o (vulv/o)', 'perine/o', 'bartholin/o', 'mamm/o (mast/o)', and 'thele- (papill/o)' mean? | 'episi/o' (Greek) and 'vulv/o' (Latin) = vulva/pudendum (episiotomy = surgical incision of the perineum/vulvar orifice during childbirth, vulvectomy); 'perine/o' = perineum (region between vaginal introitus/scrotum and anus); 'bartholin/o' = Bartholin (greater vestibular) gland (bartholinitis); 'mamm/o' (Latin) and 'mast/o' (Greek) = breast (mammography, mastectomy, mastitis, gynecomastia); 'thele-' and 'papill/o' = nipple (thelarche = onset of breast bud development, intraductal papilloma). |  |  |
| 3 | What do the semen analysis terms 'Oligospermia', 'Azoospermia', 'Asthenozoospermia', 'Teratozoospermia', and 'Aspermia' mean? | 'Oligospermia' = abnormally low sperm concentration in ejaculate; 'Azoospermia' (a- = without + zo/o = animal/life + -spermia) = complete absence of spermatozoa in ejaculate; 'Asthenozoospermia' (asthen/o = weakness) = reduced sperm motility; 'Teratozoospermia' (terat/o = monster/malformation) = high percentage of abnormally shaped sperm; 'Aspermia' = complete absence of semen ejaculate (e.g., retrograde ejaculation). |  |  |
| 4 | What do the pelvic floor prolapse terms 'Cystocele', 'Rectocele', 'Enterocele', and 'Uterine Prolapse' mean? | 'Cystocele' = herniation of the urinary bladder posteriorly into the anterior vaginal wall; 'Rectocele' = herniation of the rectum anteriorly into the posterior vaginal wall; 'Enterocele' = herniation of small bowel loops into the upper vaginal vault (pouch of Douglas); 'Uterine prolapse' = downward descent of the cervix and uterus into or through the vaginal canal. |  |  |
| 5 | What do the female reproductive combining forms 'hyster/o (metr/o, uter/o)', 'cervic/o (trachel/o)', 'salping/o', 'oophor/o (ovari/o)', and 'colp/o (vagin/o)' mean? | 'hyster/o', 'metr/o', and 'uter/o' = uterus/womb (hysterectomy, endometrium, myometrium, metrorrhagia); 'cervic/o' and 'trachel/o' = uterine cervix/neck (cervicitis, trachelectomy); 'salping/o' = fallopian (uterine) tube (salpingectomy, hysterosalpingography); 'oophor/o' (Greek) and 'ovari/o' (Latin) = ovary (oophorectomy); 'colp/o' (Greek) and 'vagin/o' (Latin) = vagina (colposcopy, colporrhaphy). |  |  |
| 6 | Distinguish between 'Hydronephrosis', 'Nephrolithiasis', 'Ureterolithiasis', 'Pyelonephritis', and 'Cystitis'. | 'Hydronephrosis' (hydr/o = water/urine) = distension and dilation of the renal pelvis and calyces caused by outflow obstruction of urine; 'Nephrolithiasis' = kidney stones; 'Ureterolithiasis' = stone lodged in the ureter (renal colic); 'Pyelonephritis' = ascending bacterial infection of the renal pelvis and kidney parenchyma; 'Cystitis' = inflammation/infection of the urinary bladder. |  |  |
| 7 | What do the male reproductive combining forms 'orch/o (orchi/o, orchid/o, test/o)', 'epididym/o', 'vas/o (deferent/o)', 'vesicul/o', 'prostat/o', 'balan/o', and 'scrot/o' mean? | 'orch/o / orchi/o / orchid/o' (Greek) and 'test/o' (Latin) = testis/testicle (orchitis, orchiopexy, orchiectomy); 'epididym/o' = epididymis (epididymitis); 'vas/o' and 'deferent/o' = vas deferens (ductus deferens; vasectomy, vasovasostomy); 'vesicul/o' = seminal vesicle; 'prostat/o' = prostate gland (transurethral resection of the prostate = TURP); 'balan/o' = glans penis (balanitis, balanoposthitis); 'scrot/o' = scrotum (scrotal). |  |  |
| 8 | What do the large intestinal combining forms 'col/o (colon/o)', 'cec/o (typhl/o)', 'appendic/o (append/o)', 'sigmoid/o', 'rect/o', and 'proct/o (an/o)' mean? | 'col/o / colon/o' = colon/large intestine (colonoscopy, colectomy); 'cec/o' and 'typhl/o' = cecum (blind pouch beginning the large intestine; typhlitis = neutropenic enterocolitis of the cecum); 'appendic/o' = vermiform appendix; 'sigmoid/o' = S-shaped sigmoid colon; 'rect/o' = rectum; 'an/o' = anus; 'proct/o' = anus and rectum combined (proctoscopy, proctocolectomy). |  |  |
| 9 | Compare the four biliary clinical terms: 'Cholelithiasis', 'Cholecystitis', 'Choledocholithiasis', and 'Cholangitis'. | 'Cholelithiasis' = presence of gallstones in the gallbladder (biliary colic); 'Cholecystitis' = acute inflammation of the gallbladder wall (usually from cystic duct obstruction; positive Murphy sign); 'Choledocholithiasis' = gallstone lodged in the common bile duct (conjugated hyperbilirubinemia); 'Acute Cholangitis' = bacterial infection of the obstructed biliary tree (Charcot triad: fever, jaundice, RUQ pain). |  |  |
| 10 | Distinguish the urinary output terms: 'Polyuria', 'Oliguria', 'Anuria', 'Nocturia', 'Enuresis', and 'Retention vs. Incontinence'. | 'Polyuria' = excessive urine volume (> 3 L/day in adults); 'Oliguria' = low urine output (< 400 mL/day or < 0.5 mL/kg/hr); 'Anuria' = virtual absence of urine output (< 50–100 mL/day); 'Nocturia' = awakening at night to void; 'Enuresis' = involuntary nocturnal bedwetting; 'Urinary retention' = inability to empty a full bladder vs. 'Urinary incontinence' = involuntary leakage of urine. |  |  |
| 11 | Distinguish between 'Diabetes Mellitus' and 'Diabetes Insipidus' based on the Greek/Latin origins of their names. | 'Diabetes' (Greek = 'siphon' or 'to pass through') refers to polyuria and polydipsia in both disorders; 'Mellitus' (Latin = 'honey-sweet') refers to glucose-rich sweet urine caused by insulin deficiency or resistance; 'Insipidus' (Latin = 'tasteless / lacking flavor') refers to dilute, tasteless hypotonic urine caused by Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH / vasopressin) deficiency (central DI) or renal ADH resistance (nephrogenic DI). |  |  |
| 12 | What do the GI stool terms 'Steatorrhea', 'Hematochezia', 'Melena', 'Acholic stools', and 'Tenesmus' mean? | 'Steatorrhea' (steat/o = fat + -rrhea) = bulky, foul-smelling, greasy floating stools from fat malabsorption; 'Hematochezia' = passage of bright red blood per rectum (usually lower GI bleed); 'Melena' = black, tarry stools from digested upper GI blood; 'Acholic stools' (a- = without + chol/e = bile) = pale, clay-colored stools due to biliary obstruction; 'Tenesmus' = painful, ineffective urgent straining at stool. |  |  |
| 13 | Distinguish closely related hepatobiliary combining forms: 'hepat/o', 'chol/e (bil/i)', 'cholecyst/o', 'cholangi/o', and 'choledoch/o'. | 'hepat/o' = liver (hepatitis, hepatoma); 'chol/e' (Greek) and 'bil/i' (Latin) = bile or gall (cholelithiasis, biliary); 'cholecyst/o' = gallbladder (cholecystectomy); 'cholangi/o' = bile ducts in general (cholangiography, cholangiocarcinoma, ascending cholangitis); 'choledoch/o' = COMMON BILE DUCT specifically (choledocholithiasis = stone in the common bile duct). |  |  |
| 14 | Distinguish between 'Azotemia' and 'Uremia' in renal failure. | 'Azotemia' (azot/o = nitrogen + -emia) is the biochemical abnormality of elevated blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and serum creatinine levels; 'Uremia' (ur/o = urine + -emia) is the clinical syndrome when severe azotemia produces systemic symptoms and signs (uremic encephalopathy, asterixis, pericarditis, platelet dysfunction, uremic frost). |  |  |
| 15 | Distinguish the male urogenital abnormalities: 'Cryptorchidism', 'Testicular Torsion', 'Varicocele', 'Hydrocele', 'Hypospadias vs. Epispadias', and 'Phimosis vs. Paraphimosis'. | 'Cryptorchidism' (crypt/o = hidden) = undescended testis; 'Testicular torsion' = twisting of the spermatic cord cutting off testicular blood supply; 'Varicocele' = dilated tortuous pampiniform plexus veins ('bag of worms'); 'Hydrocele' = serous fluid in the tunica vaginalis; 'Hypospadias' = urethral opening on the ventral (underside) of penis vs. 'Epispadias' on the dorsal surface; 'Phimosis' = inability to retract a tight foreskin over the glans vs. 'Paraphimosis' = retracted foreskin trapped behind the glans causing strangulation. |  |  |
| 16 | Distinguish between 'Acromegaly' and 'Pituitary Gigantism' based on their root words and timing of epiphyseal plate closure. | Both are caused by excess Growth Hormone (GH / somatotropin) from a somatotroph pituitary adenoma: 'Gigantism' occurs in children BEFORE epiphyseal growth plate fusion, causing proportional linear tall stature; 'Acromegaly' (acr/o = extremities/acral parts + -megaly = enlargement) occurs in adults AFTER epiphyseal fusion, causing enlargement of the hands, feet, jaw (prognathism), tongue (macroglossia), and visceral organs. |  |  |
| 17 | What do the urinary tract combining forms 'nephr/o (ren/o)', 'glomerul/o', 'pyel/o', 'calic/o (cali/o)', 'ureter/o', 'cyst/o (vesic/o)', and 'urethr/o' mean? | 'nephr/o' (Greek) and 'ren/o' (Latin) = kidney (nephrology, renal); 'glomerul/o' = glomerulus (filtering capillary tuft; glomerulonephritis); 'pyel/o' = renal pelvis (funnel-shaped collecting basin; pyelonephritis, pyeloplasty); 'calic/o' = renal calyx; 'ureter/o' = ureter (tube from kidney to bladder); 'cyst/o' and 'vesic/o' = urinary bladder (cystitis, vesicoureteral reflux); 'urethr/o' = urethra (tube from bladder to exterior). |  |  |
| 18 | What does the surgical abbreviation 'TAH-BSO' stand for, and which organs are removed based on its root words? | 'Total Abdominal Hysterectomy with Bilateral Salpingo-Oophorectomy': surgical removal of the entire uterus including the cervix (hysterectomy) via an abdominal incision, along with both (bilateral) fallopian tubes (salping/o) and both ovaries (oophor/o). |  |  |
| 19 | What do the upper GI combining forms 'esophag/o', 'gastr/o', 'pylor/o', and 'vag/o' mean? | 'esophag/o' = esophagus (esophagogastroduodenoscopy = EGD); 'gastr/o' = stomach (gastritis, gastrectomy); 'pylor/o' = pylorus/pyloric sphincter at the gastric outlet (pyloromyotomy for hypertrophic pyloric stenosis); 'vag/o' = vagus nerve (vagotomy). |  |  |
| 20 | What do the clinical endocrine terms 'Polydipsia', 'Polyphagia', 'Polyuria', 'Hirsutism', 'Virilization', 'Gynecomastia', and 'Galactorrhea' mean? | 'Polydipsia' (-dipsia = thirst) = excessive thirst; 'Polyphagia' = excessive hunger/eating; 'Polyuria' = excessive urination (classic triad of Diabetes Mellitus); 'Hirsutism' = excessive male-pattern terminal hair growth in a female due to androgen excess; 'Virilization' = development of male secondary sexual characteristics (deepening voice, clitoromegaly); 'Gynecomastia' (gynec/o = female + mast/o = breast) = benign proliferation of male breast glandular tissue; 'Galactorrhea' (galact/o = milk) = inappropriate breast milk discharge unrelated to breastfeeding (e.g., prolactinoma). |  |  |
| 21 | What do the obstetric complication terms 'Placenta Previa', 'Placental Abruption (Abruptio Placentae)', 'Placenta Accreta', 'Preeclampsia', and 'Eclampsia' mean? | 'Placenta previa' = placenta implanted in the lower uterine segment overlying the internal cervical os (painless 3rd-trimester bleeding); 'Placental abruption' = premature separation of a normally implanted placenta before delivery (painful bleeding and rigid uterus); 'Placenta accreta' = abnormal trophoblastic invasion into the myometrium without a decidua basalis cleavage plane; 'Preeclampsia' = new-onset hypertension and proteinuria/end-organ dysfunction after 20 weeks gestation, which becomes 'Eclampsia' upon onset of generalized tonic-clonic seizures. |  |  |
| 22 | What do the small intestinal combining forms 'enter/o', 'duoden/o', 'jejun/o', and 'ile/o' mean in order from proximal to distal? | 'enter/o' = small intestine (or intestine in general; enteritis, gastroenteritis); 'duoden/o' = duodenum (first ~25 cm / 12 finger-breadths of small intestine); 'jejun/o' = jejunum (middle section of small intestine; jejunostomy); 'ile/o' = ileum (distal section of small intestine terminating at the ileocecal valve). |  |  |
| 23 | How is the obstetric 'TPAL' (or 'GTPAL') notation defined in clinical charting? | 'G' (Gravida) = total number of pregnancies regardless of outcome; 'T' (Term) = deliveries at >= 37 weeks gestation; 'P' (Preterm) = deliveries between 20 weeks 0 days and 36 weeks 6 days; 'A' (Abortions) = pregnancy losses (spontaneous miscarriages, ectopic, or elective) prior to 20 weeks; 'L' (Living) = number of currently living children. |  |  |
| 24 | Distinguish between 'Euthyroid', 'Hyperthyroidism vs. Thyrotoxicosis', 'Myxedema', 'Cretinism', and 'Exophthalmos (Proptosis)'. | 'Euthyroid' = normal thyroid gland function; 'Hyperthyroidism' = excess hormone synthesis by the thyroid gland vs. 'Thyrotoxicosis' = clinical syndrome of excess circulating thyroid hormones from any source; 'Myxedema' (myx/o = mucus + -edema) = severe adult hypothyroidism with non-pitting mucopolysaccharide skin infiltration; 'Cretinism' = congenital hypothyroidism causing intellectual disability and stunted growth; 'Exophthalmos' (ex- = out + ophthalm/o = eye) = protrusion of the eyeballs (classic in Graves disease due to retro-orbital glycosaminoglycan deposition). |  |  |
| 25 | What do the GI pathological terms 'Diverticulosis vs. Diverticulitis', 'Volvulus', 'Intussusception', and 'Ileus' mean? | 'Diverticulosis' = presence of outpouchings (diverticula) in the colonic wall, whereas 'Diverticulitis' = inflammation/microperforation of a diverticulum; 'Volvulus' (Latin volvere = to roll/twist) = twisting of a loop of bowel around its mesenteric axis causing obstruction and strangulation; 'Intussusception' = telescoping of a proximal bowel segment into an adjacent distal segment ('currant jelly' stools); 'Paralytic Ileus' = functional adynamic arrest of intestinal peristalsis without mechanical obstruction. |  |  |
| 26 | What do the oral cavity combining forms 'stomat/o (or/o)', 'gloss/o (lingu/o)', 'cheil/o (labi/o)', 'gingiv/o', 'odont/o (dent/i)', and 'sial/o (ptyal/o)' mean? | 'stomat/o' (Greek) and 'or/o' (Latin) = mouth (stomatitis, oral); 'gloss/o' and 'lingu/o' = tongue (glossitis, hypoglossal, sublingual); 'cheil/o' and 'labi/o' = lip (cheilosis = angular lip fissuring, labial); 'gingiv/o' = gums (gingivitis); 'odont/o' and 'dent/i' = tooth; 'sial/o' and 'ptyal/o' = saliva or salivary gland (ptyalism, sialolithiasis = salivary duct stone), and 'sialaden/o' = salivary gland. |  |  |
| 27 | What do the pancreatic and peritoneal combining forms 'pancreat/o', 'peritone/o', 'lapar/o (celi/o)', 'oment/o (epiplo/o)', and 'mesenter/o' mean? | 'pancreat/o' = pancreas (pancreatitis, pancreaticoduodenectomy / Whipple procedure); 'peritone/o' = peritoneum; 'lapar/o' and 'celi/o' = abdominal wall / abdomen (laparotomy = open abdominal incision, laparoscopy, celiac); 'oment/o' and 'epiplo/o' = omentum (fatty peritoneal fold hanging from stomach); 'mesenter/o' = mesentery suspending intestines. |  |  |
| 28 | Distinguish between 'Endometritis', 'Endometriosis', and 'Adenomyosis' based on their root words and pathology. | 'Endometritis' = infection/inflammation of the uterine endometrial lining (often postpartum or PID); 'Endometriosis' (-osis = abnormal condition) = presence of functioning endometrial glands and stroma OUTSIDE the uterus (e.g., ovaries 'chocolate cysts', pelvic peritoneum); 'Adenomyosis' (aden/o = gland + my/o = muscle + -osis) = invasion of endometrial tissue directly into the muscular wall (myometrium) of the uterus. |  |  |
| 29 | What do the endocrine combining forms 'aden/o', 'hypophys/o (pituitar/o)', 'pineal/o', 'thyr/o (thyroid/o)', 'parathyroid/o', 'adren/o (supraren/o)', and 'gonad/o' mean? | 'aden/o' = gland (adenoma); 'hypophys/o' and 'pituitar/o' = pituitary gland (hypophysectomy, panhypopituitarism); 'pineal/o' = pineal gland (secretes melatonin); 'thyr/o / thyroid/o' = thyroid gland ('shield-shaped'; thyromegaly/goiter, thyroidectomy); 'parathyroid/o' = parathyroid glands; 'adren/o / supraren/o' = adrenal glands (adrenalectomy, adrenarche); 'gonad/o' = sex glands (ovaries and testes). |  |  |
| 30 | What do the metabolic and endocrine roots 'crin/o', 'glyc/o (glucos/o)', 'kal/i', 'natr/i', 'calc/i', 'ket/o (aceton/o)', and 'toxic/o' mean? | 'crin/o' = to secrete (endocrinology); 'glyc/o / glucos/o' = sugar/glucose (glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis, hypoglycemia); 'kal/i' = potassium (hyperkalemia, hypokalemia); 'natr/i' = sodium (hyponatremia, natriuresis); 'calc/i' = calcium (hypercalcemia, hypocalcemia); 'ket/o' and 'aceton/o' = ketones/acetone (ketoacidosis, acetonuria); 'toxic/o' = poison (thyrotoxicosis = clinical state of excess circulating thyroid hormones). |  |  |
| 31 | Distinguish the menstrual terminology: 'Menarche', 'Menopause', 'Amenorrhea', 'Dysmenorrhea', 'Menorrhagia', 'Metrorrhagia', and 'Menometrorrhagia'. | 'Menarche' (men/o = month/menses + -arche = beginning) = first menstrual period at puberty; 'Menopause' = permanent cessation of menses (> 12 months); 'Amenorrhea' = absence of menstruation; 'Dysmenorrhea' = painful menstruation/cramping; 'Menorrhagia' = abnormally heavy or prolonged menstrual bleeding at REGULAR intervals; 'Metrorrhagia' (metr/o = uterus) = uterine bleeding at IRREGULAR intervals between periods; 'Menometrorrhagia' = heavy bleeding both during menses and at irregular intervals. |  |  |
| 32 | What do the obstetric combining forms 'gravid/o (cyes/o)', 'par/o (part/o, toc/o)', 'nat/i', 'amni/o', 'chori/o', and 'placent/o' mean? | 'gravid/o' and 'cyes/o' = pregnancy (primigravida, pseudocyesis = false pregnancy); 'par/o', 'part/o', and 'toc/o' = labor/childbirth/bearing offspring (postpartum, dystocia = difficult labor, oxytocin, tocolytic); 'nat/i' = birth (neonate, prenatal); 'amni/o' = amnion/amniotic sac (amniocentesis, chorioamnionitis); 'chori/o' = chorion (outer fetal membrane; choriocarcinoma); 'placent/o' = placenta (uteroplacental, placentitis). |  |  |

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