# Earth Systems, Energy & Environmental Pollution

> Review selected concepts in soils, weather, energy systems, air and water pollution, climate feedbacks and U.S. environmental law. Explain mechanisms, distinguish conditional models from universal rules, and apply energy calculations with consistent units. This focused recall unit supports environmental-science study; it does not replace a complete examination syllabus or practical preparation.

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- **Level:** basic
- **Languages:** en → en
- **Total Cards:** 32

## Flashcards (32 Cards)

| # | Front (Term / Prompt) | Back (Definition / Answer) | Example | Multiple-Choice Options |
| :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- |
| 1 | How do chlorine radicals destroy stratospheric ozone, and what does the Montreal Protocol control? | Ultraviolet radiation can release chlorine radicals from long-lived ozone-depleting compounds. One simplified catalytic cycle is Cl· + O₃ → ClO· + O₂, followed by ClO· + O → Cl· + O₂; the net reaction is O₃ + O → 2O₂. The chlorine radical is regenerated. Polar ozone loss also involves other cycles and reactions on polar stratospheric clouds. The Montreal Protocol controls ozone-depleting substances, including CFCs and HCFCs, through phase-out schedules. The Kigali Amendment phases down specified HFCs for climate protection; HFCs are not themselves ozone-depleting substances. |  |  |
| 2 | How do atmospheric layers and global circulation differ? | From the surface upward, the main layers are the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere and exosphere; their boundaries vary with location and conditions. Most weather occurs in the troposphere, while stratospheric ozone absorbs ultraviolet radiation. The simplified circulation model has Hadley, Ferrel and Polar cells in each hemisphere. Unequal heating creates pressure differences, and Earth's rotation deflects large-scale motion to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and left in the Southern Hemisphere. Continents, seasons and topography modify these average patterns. |  |  |
| 3 | How do passive solar design, photovoltaics and concentrating solar power differ? | Passive solar design uses orientation, glazing, shading, insulation and thermal mass to manage heat without relying on an active solar collector circuit. Equator-facing glazing generally helps winter heating: south-facing in the Northern Hemisphere and north-facing in the Southern Hemisphere, subject to climate and site constraints. Photovoltaic cells convert absorbed light into electrical energy through semiconductor processes. Concentrating solar power uses mirrors to focus sunlight onto a receiver, producing heat for electricity generation or storage. Not all concentrating systems use a central tower. |  |  |
| 4 | Why can a temperature inversion worsen air pollution? | Within an inversion layer, air temperature increases with height. This stable arrangement can inhibit vertical mixing and confine emissions near the surface, especially under calm conditions. Nighttime surface cooling or warm air moving over colder air can create inversions; valleys can further limit dispersion. An inversion does not generate pollution by itself, and mixing is not necessarily zero. The resulting exposure depends on emissions, wind, the inversion's depth and persistence, and where pollutants are released. |  |  |
| 5 | Which pollution-control technologies target particles, acid gases and vehicle exhaust? | Fabric filters trap particles, while electrostatic precipitators charge particles and collect them using an electric field. Wet scrubbers contact exhaust with a liquid to absorb or react with suitable pollutants. Dry sorbent injection and spray-dryer systems also control acid gases, using different processes from a wet scrubber. In suitable gasoline-engine conditions, a three-way catalytic converter oxidizes carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons and reduces nitrogen oxides. Control performance depends on design, pollutant, temperature, maintenance and operation; no single efficiency percentage applies to every installation. |  |  |
| 6 | How do El Niño and La Niña alter the tropical Pacific? | Normally, trade winds help accumulate warm surface water in the western tropical Pacific and support cold-water upwelling in the east. El Niño involves unusually warm central/eastern equatorial Pacific surface waters, typically with weaker trades and reduced eastern upwelling. La Niña involves unusually cool waters there, generally with stronger trades and enhanced upwelling. These coupled ocean–atmosphere changes shift rainfall and jet-stream patterns. Regional effects are probabilities, not guarantees: for example, La Niña often favors warmer, drier winters across the southern United States. |  |  |
| 7 | What distinguishes common indoor air hazards? | Radon is a radioactive gas arising in natural decay chains, including the uranium-238 chain; indoor accumulation can increase lung-cancer risk. Disturbed asbestos-containing materials can release fibers that cause serious disease when inhaled. Carbon monoxide from incomplete combustion interferes with oxygen delivery in the body. Formaldehyde and other volatile compounds can be released by some products and building materials, while smoke adds particles and gases. These hazards have different sources and mechanisms, so odor or the absence of visible smoke cannot establish that indoor air is safe. |  |  |
| 8 | What environmental tradeoffs arise in intensive farming, fishing and aquaculture? | Monoculture can simplify production while increasing vulnerability to particular pests. Concentrated livestock production requires careful manure management to limit nutrient and pathogen losses. Bottom trawls can disturb seabed habitats; longlines use many baited hooks and can catch non-target wildlife. Finfish aquaculture can release uneaten feed and waste, and escape risks depend on species and containment. Impacts vary with stocking, location, gear and management; neither every aquaculture system nor every intensive farm has the same effects. |  |  |
| 9 | What do primary, secondary and advanced wastewater treatment accomplish? | Primary treatment separates settleable and floating material. Secondary treatment typically uses microorganisms, followed by solids separation, to reduce biodegradable organic pollution. Advanced treatment can target nutrients, fine particles or particular dissolved contaminants: nitrogen removal may use nitrification and denitrification, while phosphorus removal can be biological or chemical. Disinfection reduces pathogens through methods such as chlorine, ultraviolet radiation or ozone. Effectiveness depends on organism and operating conditions; Cryptosporidium is notably chlorine-tolerant. Treatment trains vary, and ordinary secondary treatment does not remove every nutrient or chemical. |  |  |
| 10 | Why do urban heat islands form, and how can their effects be reduced? | Buildings and paved surfaces store and release heat, reduced vegetation limits shade and evaporative cooling, urban geometry affects airflow, and human activities add waste heat. The difference from nearby rural temperatures varies by weather, season, location and whether air or surface temperature is measured. Trees, appropriately designed green roofs, reflective roofs and other site-specific measures can help. Compact development can reduce transport demand, but density alone does not guarantee cooler streets; shading, ventilation, water availability and materials still matter. |  |  |
| 11 | How does acid deposition form, and why do ecosystems respond differently? | Atmospheric reactions convert sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides into acidic compounds, including sulfuric and nitric acids. These reach surfaces through wet deposition such as rain, snow or fog, and dry deposition of gases or particles. Acidification can mobilize aluminum and deplete soil nutrients, harming sensitive waters and vegetation. Carbonate-rich soils and rocks can neutralize acidity, while poorly buffered catchments are more vulnerable. Buffering capacity is finite; a single pH cutoff does not describe every natural rainfall sample or ecological response. |  |  |
| 12 | How can ice loss and permafrost thaw amplify warming? | Ice and snow reflect a large fraction of incoming sunlight. Their loss can expose darker surfaces that absorb more solar energy, promoting further warming and melting when sunlight is available. Thawing permafrost can expose organic matter to microbial decomposition, releasing CO₂ and, under oxygen-poor conditions, methane. These are positive feedbacks because they amplify an initial change, not because their effects are beneficial. Their strength and timing vary with conditions; thaw does not convert all stored carbon immediately into methane. |  |  |
| 13 | What do soil horizons and texture tell you about a soil? | Common designations are O for organic material, A for a mineral surface horizon, E for strong eluviation, B for subsurface alteration or accumulation, C for relatively little-altered parent material, and R for hard bedrock. A profile need not contain every layer. Texture describes sand, silt and clay proportions. Sandy soils often drain rapidly through large pores; clay-rich soils can have high total porosity yet slow drainage through small pores. Structure, organic matter and clay mineralogy also affect water and nutrient retention; no texture is best for every crop. |  |  |
| 14 | What causes sea-level rise, and why does local relative sea level vary? | Two major contributors to global mean sea-level rise are thermal expansion of warming seawater and added water from melting land-based glaciers and ice sheets. Their contributions are not necessarily equal. Melting already-floating sea ice has little direct effect compared with adding land ice. At a particular coast, ocean circulation, gravitational effects of changing ice mass, and land subsidence or uplift also affect water level relative to the land. A global mean rate therefore cannot be applied unchanged to every shoreline. |  |  |
| 15 | Why should renewable-energy options and hydrogen be compared over their life cycles? | Hydropower can provide controllable electricity, but dams alter rivers and some reservoirs emit substantial greenhouse gases from decomposing organic matter. Wind output varies with the wind and requires integration into the power system; siting also affects wildlife impacts. Geothermal projects depend on accessible heat and fluid flow, while enhanced systems can create permeability where natural conditions are insufficient. Hydrogen is an energy carrier whose production requires energy. A hydrogen fuel cell produces water at use, but upstream emissions depend on how the hydrogen and electricity were produced. |  |  |
| 16 | How do coal rank and a steam-electric power plant work? | The usual coal-rank sequence is lignite, subbituminous, bituminous and anthracite, reflecting increasing coalification and generally increasing fixed-carbon content. Moisture, ash, sulfur and heating value still vary; rank alone does not determine pollution or plant efficiency. In a coal-fired steam plant, combustion heats a boiler, steam turns a turbine, and the turbine drives a generator. A condenser returns exhaust steam to liquid. A cooling tower, if used, rejects heat from the cooling-water system rather than serving as the turbine's condenser. |  |  |
| 17 | How do primary pollutants and photochemical smog differ? | Primary pollutants enter the air directly from sources; secondary pollutants form through atmospheric reactions. Photochemical smog includes ground-level ozone and other secondary products formed through reactions involving nitrogen oxides, volatile organic compounds and sunlight. Warm, sunny, stagnant conditions often favor buildup, but transport and local chemistry matter, and some ozone episodes occur in cold weather. Ozone in the stratosphere helps shield Earth from ultraviolet radiation; ozone near the ground can harm lungs and vegetation. |  |  |
| 18 | What does the Keeling Curve show? | The Keeling Curve records atmospheric CO₂ at Mauna Loa, beginning in 1958. It shows a sustained long-term increase with a seasonal cycle superimposed. Northern Hemisphere vegetation removes substantial CO₂ during the growing season, while respiration and decomposition contribute to the seasonal return; human emissions drive the long-term rise. The record is not a perfectly smooth exponential curve, and a station's monthly reading is not identical to a global annual mean. Any quoted current concentration needs a date, location, averaging period and source. |  |  |
| 19 | How do the U.S. RCRA and CERCLA frameworks differ? | RCRA regulates solid and hazardous waste management, including hazardous waste from generation through treatment, storage and disposal. It also includes corrective-action requirements for releases at regulated facilities. CERCLA, commonly called Superfund, authorizes responses to releases or threatened releases of hazardous substances and can impose cleanup liability. It addresses abandoned sites as well as other release situations. Therefore, 'RCRA is only for active sites and CERCLA only for abandoned sites' is an unreliable shortcut; their authorities and site circumstances can overlap. |  |  |
| 20 | How do the three main plate-boundary types differ, and what drives plate motion? | Divergent boundaries separate plates; seafloor spreading creates oceanic crust at ridges. Convergent boundaries bring plates together: oceanic lithosphere can subduct, while continental collision thickens crust and builds mountains. Transform boundaries accommodate sideways movement without systematically creating or consuming crust. Earthquakes occur at all three types. Plate motion is coupled to mantle flow and gravitational forces, including slab pull and ridge push; it is not explained by a single conveyor belt of convection. |  |  |
| 21 | What are the limitations of landfills and waste-to-energy incineration? | Engineered landfills use measures such as liners, leachate collection, cover and gas management to reduce releases; they do not make leakage or long-term maintenance irrelevant. Decomposing organic waste can produce methane, which may be captured, flared or used for energy where systems are installed. Incineration reduces the volume of waste and can recover energy, but requires emission controls and leaves ash. Under U.S. rules, municipal-combustion ash must be evaluated for hazardous characteristics; it is not automatically all hazardous or all harmless. |  |  |
| 22 | What does global warming potential compare? | GWP compares the time-integrated radiative forcing from equal masses of a gas and CO₂ released in a pulse over a specified time horizon. CO₂ has GWP 1 by definition. The October 2025 correction to IPCC AR6 gives 100-year central estimates of 28.1 for fossil methane, 25.3 for non-fossil methane and 267 for nitrous oxide; these estimates have substantial uncertainty. Values change with the horizon and assessment, and regulatory reporting may require another version. GWP is neither a per-molecule ranking nor a measure of a gas's total observed contribution to warming. |  |  |
| 23 | What are the six U.S. criteria air pollutants? | They are carbon monoxide (CO), lead (Pb), nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), ground-level ozone (O₃), particulate matter (regulated using PM₂.₅ and PM₁₀ indicators), and sulfur dioxide (SO₂). EPA sets National Ambient Air Quality Standards for these pollutants under the Clean Air Act. NOₓ and SOₓ name broader chemical families; the listed gaseous indicators are NO₂ and SO₂. The six are not a complete list of harmful air contaminants, and other pollutants are regulated through other provisions. |  |  |
| 24 | What is hydraulic fracturing, and which risks need to be distinguished? | Hydraulic fracturing injects pressurized fluid to create or extend fractures; sand or another proppant helps keep pathways open for oil or gas to flow. It is often combined with horizontal drilling, but the two techniques are distinct. Environmental risks include spills, well-integrity failures, water demand and wastewater management, as well as methane emissions across production. Both fracturing and wastewater disposal can induce earthquakes. In many affected U.S. regions, deep wastewater injection has been the larger source of induced seismicity; that does not make fracturing incapable of triggering earthquakes. |  |  |
| 25 | Why does a nuclear reactor still need cooling after shutdown? | Fission releases heat and neutrons that can sustain a controlled chain reaction. Neutron-absorbing control rods reduce reactivity; moderators slow neutrons in thermal reactors, but not every reactor uses a moderator. Water-cooled power reactors transfer heat to a steam cycle, with different arrangements in pressurized-water and boiling-water designs. Shutdown greatly reduces the chain reaction, but radioactive decay of fission products continues to release heat. Removing this decay heat remains essential to prevent fuel overheating. Shutdown and cooling are separate safety functions. |  |  |
| 26 | How does a mountain rain shadow form? | Moist air forced up a mountain expands and cools. If it reaches saturation, water vapor condenses and precipitation may remove moisture on the windward side. Air descending on the leeward side compresses and warms, lowering its relative humidity and often producing drier conditions. The effect depends on prevailing airflow, moisture supply and terrain. Windward does not always mean coastal rainforest, and leeward does not always mean desert. |  |  |
| 27 | What distinguishes overburden, tailings and acid mine drainage? | Overburden is material removed to reach a mineral deposit; tailings remain after ore has been processed to recover valuable components. Both need management, but they are not interchangeable terms. When exposed sulfide minerals react with oxygen and water, acidic drainage can form and mobilize metals and metalloids. Its severity depends on mineralogy, buffering and water flow, so not every mine produces acidic water. In the United States, SMCRA principally regulates coal-mining reclamation; it is not a universal law for every mineral operation. |  |  |
| 28 | What can an LD₅₀ value tell you, and what can it not tell you? | LD₅₀ is an estimated dose lethal to half a test population under specified conditions, commonly expressed in milligrams per kilogram of body mass. For comparable species, exposure routes and protocols, a lower value indicates greater acute lethal toxicity. It does not by itself measure chronic illness, persistence in the environment, exposure likelihood or overall human risk. A modeled threshold or a study's no-observed-effect dose is not proof of zero risk for every person. Mixture effects may be additive, greater than additive (synergistic), or less than additive. |  |  |
| 29 | How do you calculate energy use and efficiency, and how is an ecological footprint different? | At constant power, energy = power × time: 2 kW for 3 h uses 6 kWh. One kWh equals 3.6 MJ. Efficiency = useful energy output ÷ energy input, using consistent units; 350 MWh of output at 35% efficiency requires 1,000 MWh of input. Percentage change uses (new − old) ÷ old × 100 when the old value is nonzero. An ecological footprint instead estimates demand for biologically productive area in global hectares; it is not simply an electricity total or a greenhouse-gas inventory in tonnes of CO₂-equivalent. |  |  |
| 30 | Which U.S. laws govern air quality, water pollution, drinking water and pesticides? | The Clean Air Act regulates air emissions and authorizes ambient air-quality standards. The Clean Water Act governs pollutant discharges to covered waters and related surface-water protections. The Safe Drinking Water Act sets the framework for public drinking-water standards and protects underground drinking-water sources through injection controls. FIFRA regulates pesticide registration, distribution, sale and use, with statutory exceptions. These are distinct legal frameworks with amendments and implementing rules; this list is neither all environmental law nor a claim about every examination's required syllabus. |  |  |
| 31 | How should microbial, chemical and thermal water pollution be distinguished? | Fecal-indicator organisms suggest fecal contamination risk; their presence or absence is not a direct test for every pathogen. Some chemicals disrupt endocrine signaling, with effects depending on substance, dose, species and developmental stage. Mercury can be converted by microbes into methylmercury and then accumulate in aquatic food webs; arsenic is a metalloid, not a metal. Thermal discharges can alter aquatic communities and reduce oxygen solubility as water warms. These hazards require different measurements rather than one universal water-quality indicator. |  |  |
| 32 | How can erosion and irrigation-related salinity be reduced? | Contour farming, terraces, cover crops, reduced tillage and windbreaks can limit runoff or wind erosion when suited to the site. Diverse rotations can improve soil management; legumes add biologically fixed nitrogen through microbial symbiosis, not because every rotation automatically supplies nitrate. Drip irrigation can reduce some water losses, but evaporation and plant water uptake leave salts behind. Managing salinity therefore also depends on irrigation-water quality, appropriate leaching and drainage. Efficient irrigation alone does not guarantee salt-free soil. |  |  |

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