What are the five stages of the Demographic Transition Model (DTM)?

• Stage 1: High birth rate, high death rate (stable population). • Stage 2: Death rate drops dramatically (sanitation/medicine), birth rate remains high -> rapid population explosion. • Stage 3: Birth rate falls (contraception, urbanization), death rate low -> growth slows. • Stage 4: Low birth rate, low death rate (stable, developed population). • Stage 5: Birth rate drops below replacement level -> contracting population.

What are Piaget's 4 Stages of Cognitive Development and their key developmental milestones?

1. Sensorimotor (0-2 yrs): Object permanence, circular reactions, stranger anxiety. 2. Preoperational (2-7 yrs): Egocentrism, symbolic play, centration, lack of conservation. 3. Concrete Operational (7-11 yrs): Conservation mastered, mathematical operations, logical thinking with concrete objects. 4. Formal Operational (12+ yrs): Abstract logic, hypothetical-deductive reasoning.

What is the difference between Internal and External Validity in experimental research?

• Internal Validity: The degree of certainty that the manipulated independent variable directly caused changes in the dependent variable (threatened by confounding variables, selection bias, maturation). • External Validity: The generalizability of experimental findings to real-world populations, settings, and conditions.

How do the Availability Heuristic and Representativeness Heuristic differ?

• Availability Heuristic: Estimating event probability based on how easily vivid instances come to mind (e.g., fearing plane crashes after media coverage). • Representativeness Heuristic: Judging likelihood based on how closely an individual matches a mental prototype, often ignoring statistical base rates.

What is Drive Reduction Theory versus Incentive Theory of motivation?

• Drive Reduction (Hull): Biological homeostasis disruption creates an unpleasant physiological need/drive that motivates behavior to reduce the drive and restore equilibrium. • Incentive Theory: External stimuli, cultural rewards, and positive reinforcement pull behavior forward, independent of biological deficits.

What are Intergenerational, Intragenerational, and Structural Social Mobility?

• Intergenerational: Change in socioeconomic status between children and parents. • Intragenerational: Change in socioeconomic status occurring within a single individual's lifetime career. • Structural Mobility: Large-scale societal economic changes that move entire population groups up or down the class ladder.

What is Social Constructionism in sociology?

The theory that concepts, categories, and societal facts (e.g., money, gender constructs, racial categories, diagnostic illness categories) have no inherent objective biological reality, but are created through collective social consensus and cultural agreement.

What are the components of Freud's structural model of the psyche and key defense mechanisms?

• Id (pleasure principle, unconscious), Ego (reality principle, conscious mediator), Superego (moral conscience). • Defense Mechanisms: Repression (unconscious blocking), Projection (attributing own unwanted feelings to others), Displacement (redirecting emotion to safer target), Reaction Formation (acting opposite to true feelings), Sublimation (channeling impulses into socially acceptable actions).

What does the Yerkes-Dodson Law dictate regarding arousal and task performance?

Performance follows an inverted-U relationship with physiological arousal. Optimal performance occurs at moderate arousal. Simple/well-learned tasks have optimal performance at higher arousal; complex/unfamiliar cognitive tasks require lower arousal.

How do Social Capital and Cultural Capital differ according to Pierre Bourdieu?

• Social Capital: Economic and tangible benefits acquired through social networks, connections, and institutional ties ('who you know'). • Cultural Capital: Non-financial social assets that promote social mobility: education, high-status language dialects, etiquette, dress, credentials ('what you embody').

What is the difference between Retroactive and Proactive Interference in memory?

• Retroactive Interference: NEW information impairs the retrieval of previously learned OLD information. • Proactive Interference: OLD previously learned information impairs the encoding/retrieval of NEW information.

What are the Fundamental Attribution Error, Actor-Observer Bias, and Self-Serving Bias?

• Fundamental Attribution Error: Overemphasizing internal dispositional factors and underemphasizing external situational factors when explaining OTHERS' behavior. • Actor-Observer Bias: Attributing one's own actions to situation, but others' actions to disposition. • Self-Serving Bias: Attributing one's own successes to internal factors, but failures to external factors.

What does a Pearson correlation coefficient (r) indicate about the relationship between two variables?

Measures strength and direction of linear association, ranging from -1.0 to +1.0. Magnitude indicates strength (|r| close to 1.0 is strong; 0 is no linear relationship). Correlation NEVER implies causation.

What EEG brain wave patterns characterize the stages of sleep?

• Awake / alert: Beta waves (high frequency, desynchronized). • Awake / relaxed: Alpha waves. • Stage 1 NREM: Theta waves. • Stage 2 NREM: Sleep spindles and K-complexes. • Stage 3 NREM (Slow-Wave Sleep): Delta waves (low frequency, high voltage; GH release). • REM: Beta-like desynchronized waves, skeletal muscle atonia, vivid dreaming.

What is Social Facilitation versus Social Loafing?

• Social Facilitation: Presence of others improves performance on simple or well-practiced tasks, but impairs performance on novel or complex tasks. • Social Loafing: Individuals exert less physical or cognitive effort when working collectively in a group than when held individually accountable.

What is Charles Cooley's 'Looking-Glass Self'?

An individual's self-concept and identity are constructed through three interpersonal steps: (1) Imagining how one appears to others; (2) Imagining how others judge that appearance; (3) Developing emotional self-feelings based on those perceived evaluations.

What is the structural organization of Long-Term Memory?

Long-Term Memory divides into: • Explicit (Declarative): Conscious recall; includes Episodic (autobiographical events) and Semantic (facts, world knowledge). • Implicit (Non-declarative): Unconscious recall; includes Procedural (motor skills) and Classical Conditioning priming.

How do the James-Lange, Cannon-Bard, and Schachter-Singer Theories of Emotion differ?

• James-Lange: Physiological arousal DIRECTLY causes the emotional feeling (e.g., 'I am trembling, therefore I am afraid'). • Cannon-Bard: Physiological arousal and emotional experience occur SIMULTANEOUSLY and independently. • Schachter-Singer (Two-Factor): Physiological arousal + Cognitive appraisal/label of environmental context = Emotional experience.

What are the four Operant Conditioning consequence types and which reinforcement schedule produces the highest response rate?

• Positive Reinforcement: Adding desirable stimulus. • Negative Reinforcement: Removing undesirable stimulus. • Positive Punishment: Adding aversive stimulus. • Negative Punishment: Removing desirable stimulus. • Variable Ratio schedule (e.g., slot machines) produces the highest rate of responding and greatest resistance to extinction.

What is the difference between Reliability and Validity in psychometric testing?

• Reliability: Consistency, precision, and repeatability of test measurements under identical conditions (e.g., test-retest reliability). • Validity: Accuracy; whether the test actually measures what it intends to measure. A test can be reliable without being valid, but cannot be valid without being reliable.

What are the core tenets of Structural Functionalism in sociology?

Macro-level perspective (Émile Durkheim): Society is a complex organism composed of interdependent institutions working harmoniously to maintain social order and equilibrium. Differentiates between Manifest functions (intended, recognized consequences) and Latent functions (unintended, hidden consequences).

What are the primary physiological roles of Dopamine, Serotonin, Acetylcholine, GABA, and Glutamate?

• Dopamine: Reward/pleasure pathways (VTA to nucleus accumbens), motor control (substantia nigra; loss causes Parkinson's). • Serotonin: Mood, sleep, appetite, impulse control. • Acetylcholine: Somatic neuromuscular junction, parasympathetic nervous system, memory in hippocampus (loss in Alzheimer's). • GABA: Primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in CNS (hyperpolarizes via Cl- influx). • Glutamate: Primary excitatory neurotransmitter in CNS.

What are Erikson's 8 Psychosocial Stages and their developmental crises?

1. Trust vs. Mistrust (0-1 yr) 2. Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt (1-3 yrs) 3. Initiative vs. Guilt (3-6 yrs) 4. Industry vs. Inferiority (6-12 yrs) 5. Identity vs. Role Confusion (12-18 yrs) 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (18-40 yrs) 7. Generativity vs. Stagnation (40-65 yrs) 8. Integrity vs. Despair (65+ yrs).

What are the core tenets of Conflict Theory in sociology?

Macro-level perspective (Karl Marx, Max Weber): Society is characterized by structural inequality and perpetual struggle between social classes competing for scarce wealth, power, and resources. Institutions maintain dominant group hegemony.

What is the difference between Groupthink and Group Polarization?

• Groupthink: Desire for harmony and conformity in a cohesive group causes self-censorship, suppressing dissenting opinions and resulting in poor decisions. • Group Polarization: Discussion among like-minded individuals shifts group opinion toward a MORE EXTREME position than members held initially.

How do Between-Subjects and Within-Subjects experimental designs compare?

• Between-Subjects: Different participants are assigned to each experimental group; eliminates practice and order effects, but requires larger sample size to control for baseline variance. • Within-Subjects: The same participants undergo all experimental conditions; participants serve as their own controls, reducing variance, but vulnerable to fatigue/order effects.

What is the Hawthorn Effect versus the Pygmalion Effect?

• Hawthorne Effect: Research participants modify or improve their behavior simply because they are aware they are being observed. • Pygmalion (Rosenthal) Effect: Higher expectations placed upon individuals (e.g., students by teachers) unconsciously lead to improved performance.

How do Classical and Operant Conditioning differ?

• Classical (Pavlov): Associates an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) with a neutral stimulus (CS) to elicit an involuntary conditioned response (CR). • Operant (Skinner): Modifies voluntary behavior through consequences (reinforcement increases behavior frequency, punishment decreases behavior frequency).

What are Kohlberg's 3 Levels of Moral Development?

• Pre-conventional: Stage 1 (Obedience & Punishment), Stage 2 (Individualism & Self-Interest/Exchange). • Conventional: Stage 3 (Good Boy/Girl - Conformity), Stage 4 (Law & Order - Social Duty). • Post-conventional: Stage 5 (Social Contract & Individual Rights), Stage 6 (Universal Ethical Principles).

What causes the Bystander Effect and Deindividuation?

• Bystander Effect: Individuals are less likely to offer help to a victim when other bystanders are present, driven by Diffusion of Responsibility. • Deindividuation: Loss of individual self-awareness, personal restraint, and moral accountability in large, anonymous crowd settings.

What are Type I and Type II Errors in statistical hypothesis testing?

• Type I Error (alpha): False Positive — Rejecting the null hypothesis when it is actually true. • Type II Error (beta): False Negative — Failing to reject the null hypothesis when it is actually false. Statistical Power = 1 - beta.

What are the core tenets of Symbolic Interactionism in sociology?

Micro-level perspective (George Herbert Mead, Charles Horton Cooley): Society is socially constructed and reproduced through subjective, daily interpersonal interactions, shared gestures, language, and evolving symbols.

Biochemistry (日本語) — 上級 (C1/C2) 1: Psychology & Sociology Theories, Neurotransmitters & Experimental Design

[日本語] Biochemistry (日本語): Piaget stages, Erikson psychosocial crises, Kohlberg moral stages, major neurotransmitter pathways, operant/classical conditioning, cognitive biases, sociology paradigms, and experimental validity.

Level: advanced
Languages: ja → ja
Cards: 32
Markdown: Biochemistry (日本語) — 上級 (C1/C2) 1: Psychology & Sociology Theories, Neurotransmitters & Experimental Design (.md)

Flashcards (32)

#	Front (Term / Question)	Back (Definition / Answer)
1	What are the five stages of the Demographic Transition Model (DTM)?	• Stage 1: High birth rate, high death rate (stable population). • Stage 2: Death rate drops dramatically (sanitation/medicine), birth rate remains high -> rapid population explosion. • Stage 3: Birth rate falls (contraception, urbanization), death rate low -> growth slows. • Stage 4: Low birth rate, low death rate (stable, developed population). • Stage 5: Birth rate drops below replacement level -> contracting population.
2	What are Piaget's 4 Stages of Cognitive Development and their key developmental milestones?	1. Sensorimotor (0-2 yrs): Object permanence, circular reactions, stranger anxiety. 2. Preoperational (2-7 yrs): Egocentrism, symbolic play, centration, lack of conservation. 3. Concrete Operational (7-11 yrs): Conservation mastered, mathematical operations, logical thinking with concrete objects. 4. Formal Operational (12+ yrs): Abstract logic, hypothetical-deductive reasoning.
3	What is the difference between Internal and External Validity in experimental research?	• Internal Validity: The degree of certainty that the manipulated independent variable directly caused changes in the dependent variable (threatened by confounding variables, selection bias, maturation). • External Validity: The generalizability of experimental findings to real-world populations, settings, and conditions.
4	How do the Availability Heuristic and Representativeness Heuristic differ?	• Availability Heuristic: Estimating event probability based on how easily vivid instances come to mind (e.g., fearing plane crashes after media coverage). • Representativeness Heuristic: Judging likelihood based on how closely an individual matches a mental prototype, often ignoring statistical base rates.
5	What is Drive Reduction Theory versus Incentive Theory of motivation?	• Drive Reduction (Hull): Biological homeostasis disruption creates an unpleasant physiological need/drive that motivates behavior to reduce the drive and restore equilibrium. • Incentive Theory: External stimuli, cultural rewards, and positive reinforcement pull behavior forward, independent of biological deficits.
6	What are Intergenerational, Intragenerational, and Structural Social Mobility?	• Intergenerational: Change in socioeconomic status between children and parents. • Intragenerational: Change in socioeconomic status occurring within a single individual's lifetime career. • Structural Mobility: Large-scale societal economic changes that move entire population groups up or down the class ladder.
7	What is Social Constructionism in sociology?	The theory that concepts, categories, and societal facts (e.g., money, gender constructs, racial categories, diagnostic illness categories) have no inherent objective biological reality, but are created through collective social consensus and cultural agreement.
8	What are the components of Freud's structural model of the psyche and key defense mechanisms?	• Id (pleasure principle, unconscious), Ego (reality principle, conscious mediator), Superego (moral conscience). • Defense Mechanisms: Repression (unconscious blocking), Projection (attributing own unwanted feelings to others), Displacement (redirecting emotion to safer target), Reaction Formation (acting opposite to true feelings), Sublimation (channeling impulses into socially acceptable actions).
9	What does the Yerkes-Dodson Law dictate regarding arousal and task performance?	Performance follows an inverted-U relationship with physiological arousal. Optimal performance occurs at moderate arousal. Simple/well-learned tasks have optimal performance at higher arousal; complex/unfamiliar cognitive tasks require lower arousal.
10	How do Social Capital and Cultural Capital differ according to Pierre Bourdieu?	• Social Capital: Economic and tangible benefits acquired through social networks, connections, and institutional ties ('who you know'). • Cultural Capital: Non-financial social assets that promote social mobility: education, high-status language dialects, etiquette, dress, credentials ('what you embody').
11	What is the difference between Retroactive and Proactive Interference in memory?	• Retroactive Interference: NEW information impairs the retrieval of previously learned OLD information. • Proactive Interference: OLD previously learned information impairs the encoding/retrieval of NEW information.
12	What are the Fundamental Attribution Error, Actor-Observer Bias, and Self-Serving Bias?	• Fundamental Attribution Error: Overemphasizing internal dispositional factors and underemphasizing external situational factors when explaining OTHERS' behavior. • Actor-Observer Bias: Attributing one's own actions to situation, but others' actions to disposition. • Self-Serving Bias: Attributing one's own successes to internal factors, but failures to external factors.
13	What does a Pearson correlation coefficient (r) indicate about the relationship between two variables?	Measures strength and direction of linear association, ranging from -1.0 to +1.0. Magnitude indicates strength (\|r\| close to 1.0 is strong; 0 is no linear relationship). Correlation NEVER implies causation.
14	What EEG brain wave patterns characterize the stages of sleep?	• Awake / alert: Beta waves (high frequency, desynchronized). • Awake / relaxed: Alpha waves. • Stage 1 NREM: Theta waves. • Stage 2 NREM: Sleep spindles and K-complexes. • Stage 3 NREM (Slow-Wave Sleep): Delta waves (low frequency, high voltage; GH release). • REM: Beta-like desynchronized waves, skeletal muscle atonia, vivid dreaming.
15	What is Social Facilitation versus Social Loafing?	• Social Facilitation: Presence of others improves performance on simple or well-practiced tasks, but impairs performance on novel or complex tasks. • Social Loafing: Individuals exert less physical or cognitive effort when working collectively in a group than when held individually accountable.
16	What is Charles Cooley's 'Looking-Glass Self'?	An individual's self-concept and identity are constructed through three interpersonal steps: (1) Imagining how one appears to others; (2) Imagining how others judge that appearance; (3) Developing emotional self-feelings based on those perceived evaluations.
17	What is the structural organization of Long-Term Memory?	Long-Term Memory divides into: • Explicit (Declarative): Conscious recall; includes Episodic (autobiographical events) and Semantic (facts, world knowledge). • Implicit (Non-declarative): Unconscious recall; includes Procedural (motor skills) and Classical Conditioning priming.
18	How do the James-Lange, Cannon-Bard, and Schachter-Singer Theories of Emotion differ?	• James-Lange: Physiological arousal DIRECTLY causes the emotional feeling (e.g., 'I am trembling, therefore I am afraid'). • Cannon-Bard: Physiological arousal and emotional experience occur SIMULTANEOUSLY and independently. • Schachter-Singer (Two-Factor): Physiological arousal + Cognitive appraisal/label of environmental context = Emotional experience.
19	What are the four Operant Conditioning consequence types and which reinforcement schedule produces the highest response rate?	• Positive Reinforcement: Adding desirable stimulus. • Negative Reinforcement: Removing undesirable stimulus. • Positive Punishment: Adding aversive stimulus. • Negative Punishment: Removing desirable stimulus. • Variable Ratio schedule (e.g., slot machines) produces the highest rate of responding and greatest resistance to extinction.
20	What is the difference between Reliability and Validity in psychometric testing?	• Reliability: Consistency, precision, and repeatability of test measurements under identical conditions (e.g., test-retest reliability). • Validity: Accuracy; whether the test actually measures what it intends to measure. A test can be reliable without being valid, but cannot be valid without being reliable.
21	What are the core tenets of Structural Functionalism in sociology?	Macro-level perspective (Émile Durkheim): Society is a complex organism composed of interdependent institutions working harmoniously to maintain social order and equilibrium. Differentiates between Manifest functions (intended, recognized consequences) and Latent functions (unintended, hidden consequences).
22	What are the primary physiological roles of Dopamine, Serotonin, Acetylcholine, GABA, and Glutamate?	• Dopamine: Reward/pleasure pathways (VTA to nucleus accumbens), motor control (substantia nigra; loss causes Parkinson's). • Serotonin: Mood, sleep, appetite, impulse control. • Acetylcholine: Somatic neuromuscular junction, parasympathetic nervous system, memory in hippocampus (loss in Alzheimer's). • GABA: Primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in CNS (hyperpolarizes via Cl- influx). • Glutamate: Primary excitatory neurotransmitter in CNS.
23	What are Erikson's 8 Psychosocial Stages and their developmental crises?	1. Trust vs. Mistrust (0-1 yr) 2. Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt (1-3 yrs) 3. Initiative vs. Guilt (3-6 yrs) 4. Industry vs. Inferiority (6-12 yrs) 5. Identity vs. Role Confusion (12-18 yrs) 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (18-40 yrs) 7. Generativity vs. Stagnation (40-65 yrs) 8. Integrity vs. Despair (65+ yrs).
24	What are the core tenets of Conflict Theory in sociology?	Macro-level perspective (Karl Marx, Max Weber): Society is characterized by structural inequality and perpetual struggle between social classes competing for scarce wealth, power, and resources. Institutions maintain dominant group hegemony.
25	What is the difference between Groupthink and Group Polarization?	• Groupthink: Desire for harmony and conformity in a cohesive group causes self-censorship, suppressing dissenting opinions and resulting in poor decisions. • Group Polarization: Discussion among like-minded individuals shifts group opinion toward a MORE EXTREME position than members held initially.
26	How do Between-Subjects and Within-Subjects experimental designs compare?	• Between-Subjects: Different participants are assigned to each experimental group; eliminates practice and order effects, but requires larger sample size to control for baseline variance. • Within-Subjects: The same participants undergo all experimental conditions; participants serve as their own controls, reducing variance, but vulnerable to fatigue/order effects.
27	What is the Hawthorn Effect versus the Pygmalion Effect?	• Hawthorne Effect: Research participants modify or improve their behavior simply because they are aware they are being observed. • Pygmalion (Rosenthal) Effect: Higher expectations placed upon individuals (e.g., students by teachers) unconsciously lead to improved performance.
28	How do Classical and Operant Conditioning differ?	• Classical (Pavlov): Associates an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) with a neutral stimulus (CS) to elicit an involuntary conditioned response (CR). • Operant (Skinner): Modifies voluntary behavior through consequences (reinforcement increases behavior frequency, punishment decreases behavior frequency).
29	What are Kohlberg's 3 Levels of Moral Development?	• Pre-conventional: Stage 1 (Obedience & Punishment), Stage 2 (Individualism & Self-Interest/Exchange). • Conventional: Stage 3 (Good Boy/Girl - Conformity), Stage 4 (Law & Order - Social Duty). • Post-conventional: Stage 5 (Social Contract & Individual Rights), Stage 6 (Universal Ethical Principles).
30	What causes the Bystander Effect and Deindividuation?	• Bystander Effect: Individuals are less likely to offer help to a victim when other bystanders are present, driven by Diffusion of Responsibility. • Deindividuation: Loss of individual self-awareness, personal restraint, and moral accountability in large, anonymous crowd settings.
31	What are Type I and Type II Errors in statistical hypothesis testing?	• Type I Error (alpha): False Positive — Rejecting the null hypothesis when it is actually true. • Type II Error (beta): False Negative — Failing to reject the null hypothesis when it is actually false. Statistical Power = 1 - beta.
32	What are the core tenets of Symbolic Interactionism in sociology?	Micro-level perspective (George Herbert Mead, Charles Horton Cooley): Society is socially constructed and reproduced through subjective, daily interpersonal interactions, shared gestures, language, and evolving symbols.