What is sensory adaptation?

The progressive reduction in sensory receptor sensitivity and neural firing frequency following prolonged, unchanging exposure to a constant stimulus.

What sensory structures provide vestibular information regarding balance, head orientation, and acceleration?

The semicircular canals (detecting rotational angular acceleration) and otolith organs (utricle and saccule, detecting linear acceleration and gravity).

Which midbrain network is essential for regulating sleep-wake transitions, alertness, and cortical arousal?

The Reticular Activating System (RAS) within the reticular formation.

What monocular depth cues allow humans to perceive depth in two-dimensional paintings or photographs?

Linear perspective, relative size, interposition (occlusion), texture gradient, light and shadow, and relative height.

Which neurotransmitter is critical for motor movement at neuromuscular junctions, parasympathetic function, and memory consolidation?

Acetylcholine (ACh); severe degeneration of cholinergic neurons in the basal forebrain is a hallmark of Alzheimer's disease.

What are the distinct emotional and cognitive functions of the amygdala versus the hippocampus?

The amygdala processes emotional valence, fear conditioning, and threat detection; the hippocampus consolidates explicit declarative memories from short-term into long-term storage.

What physiological functions does serotonin (5-HT) regulate, and how do SSRIs treat clinical depression?

Regulates mood, emotional stability, sleep cycles, and appetite; SSRIs selectively inhibit the presynaptic serotonin transporter (SERT), prolonging serotonin activity in the synaptic cleft.

What is the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the adult central nervous system, and what class of medications enhances its action?

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid); benzodiazepines and barbiturates act as positive allosteric modulators on GABA-A receptors to produce anxiolytic and sedative effects.

How do Place Theory and Frequency Theory explain pitch perception across different sound frequencies?

Place theory explains high-frequency sounds by maximum basilar membrane displacement near the cochlear base; Frequency theory (and the Volley principle) explains low-frequency sounds by the synchronous firing rate of auditory nerve fibers.

Why is glutamate considered both essential for neuroplasticity and dangerous in acute brain injury?

It is the primary excitatory neurotransmitter required for Long-Term Potentiation (LTP); excessive release triggers excitotoxicity, flooding neurons with Ca2+ and causing apoptotic cell death.

What autonomic vital reflexes are coordinated by the medulla oblongata?

Heart rate, vascular vasomotor tone, respiratory rhythmicity, swallowing, coughing, sneezing, and vomiting reflexes.

Define the Gestalt grouping principles of Proximity, Similarity, and Closure.

Proximity: objects close to one another are grouped together; Similarity: visually similar objects are grouped; Closure: the mind automatically fills in gaps to perceive an incomplete figure as complete.

What is the resting membrane potential of a neuron, and what primary mechanism maintains it?

Approximately -70 mV; maintained by the electrogenic Na+/K+ ATPase pump (3 Na+ out, 2 K+ in) and non-gated K+ leak channels.

What functional deficits characterize Broca's aphasia versus Wernicke's aphasia?

Broca's aphasia (frontal lobe) causes non-fluent, halting, telegraphic speech with preserved comprehension; Wernicke's aphasia (temporal lobe) causes fluent, grammatically correct nonsense speech with severely impaired comprehension.

How do dopamine imbalances correlate with Parkinson's disease and Schizophrenia?

Parkinson's is caused by loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra; Schizophrenia is associated with excessive dopamine activity in the mesolimbic pathway (D2 receptors).

State Weber's Law of psychophysics and explain its significance.

The Just Noticeable Difference (JND / difference threshold) between two stimuli is a constant proportion (k) of the original stimulus intensity: ΔI / I = k.

Explain the Gate Control Theory of pain proposed by Melzack and Wall.

A neural 'gate' in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord modulates pain signals; non-painful tactile input via large A-beta fibers activates inhibitory interneurons to close the gate, reducing pain transmission from small A-delta and C fibers.

Compare the distribution, lighting conditions, and visual acuity of retinal rods versus cones.

Rods: peripheral, scotopic (low-light/night), achromatic, high convergence (low acuity); Cones: concentrated in the fovea, photopic (bright light), trichromatic color vision, 1:1 wiring (high acuity).

What are the primary functional zones of a neuron, and in what direction does an electrical nerve impulse travel?

Dendrites (receptive input) -> Soma (cell body) -> Axon Hillock (action potential trigger zone) -> Axon (conduction) -> Axon Terminals (synaptic output).

What does the All-or-None Law state regarding neuronal action potentials?

Once the membrane threshold of excitation (~ -55 mV) is reached at the axon hillock, an action potential fires at full and constant amplitude; stronger stimuli increase firing frequency, not action potential size.

How do the Young-Helmholtz Trichromatic Theory and Hering's Opponent-Process Theory together explain human color vision?

Trichromatic theory explains color reception at the retina via three cone photoreceptor types (red, green, blue); Opponent-Process theory explains downstream neural processing via paired antagonistic channels (red-green, blue-yellow, black-white).

What sensory structure within the inner ear contains the auditory receptor hair cells?

The Organ of Corti, situated on the basilar membrane within the cochlea.

What are endorphins, and how do they modulate nociceptive (pain) signaling?

Endogenous opioid neuropeptides that bind mu-opioid receptors in the periaqueductal gray and spinal cord to inhibit substance P release, producing analgesia and euphoria.

Which sensory modality bypasses the thalamus on its direct pathway to the primary cortex?

Olfaction (the sense of smell), which projects directly to the olfactory bulb and piriform cortex.

What is sensory transduction?

The physiological process by which sensory receptors convert physical environmental energy (light, sound waves, mechanical pressure) into electrical neural action potentials.

What is the primary motor coordination role of the cerebellum?

Fine-tuning motor precision, timing, coordination of voluntary movement, posture, and motor procedural learning (e.g., riding a bicycle).

What are the two primary binocular depth cues, and how do they operate?

Retinal Disparity: the brain calculates depth by comparing the slightly different horizontal images received by each eye; Convergence: the inward neuromuscular turning of the eyes when focusing on nearby objects.

What four outcomes are analyzed in Signal Detection Theory, and what do d' and β represent?

Outcomes: Hit, Miss, False Alarm, Correct Rejection; d' represents the observer's sensory sensitivity, while β (or c) represents their cognitive decision response criterion.

What is the core premise of Gestalt psychology regarding sensory perception?

The human brain organizes sensory elements into holistic, structured perceptions: 'The whole is other (or greater) than the sum of its parts.'

What is the primary neuroendocrine regulatory role of the hypothalamus?

Maintains physiological homeostasis (temperature, thirst, hunger, circadian rhythms) and controls the pituitary gland (the 4 F's: fighting, fleeing, feeding, and mating).

What did Roger Sperry and Michael Gazzaniga discover in split-brain patients whose corpus callosum was severed?

Hemispheric lateralization: an image flashed in the left visual field (right hemisphere) can be drawn with the left hand, but the patient cannot verbally name it because language is lateralized to the left hemisphere.

What vital homeostatic and protective roles do astrocytes play in the central nervous system?

They maintain extracellular ion balance (buffering K+), uptake and recycle neurotransmitters (glutamate), provide metabolic glucose support, and form the blood-brain barrier via perivascular end-feet.

Sociology (Basic): Biological Foundations, Neurotransmitters, Sensation & Perception

Neural anatomy, neurotransmitters, sensory transduction, visual/auditory pathways, psychophysics, and Gestalt perceptual principles

Level: basic
Languages: en → en
Cards: 32
Markdown: Sociology (Basic): Biological Foundations, Neurotransmitters, Sensation & Perception (.md)

Flashcards (32)

#	Front (Term / Question)	Back (Definition / Answer)
1	What is sensory adaptation?	The progressive reduction in sensory receptor sensitivity and neural firing frequency following prolonged, unchanging exposure to a constant stimulus.
2	What sensory structures provide vestibular information regarding balance, head orientation, and acceleration?	The semicircular canals (detecting rotational angular acceleration) and otolith organs (utricle and saccule, detecting linear acceleration and gravity).
3	Which midbrain network is essential for regulating sleep-wake transitions, alertness, and cortical arousal?	The Reticular Activating System (RAS) within the reticular formation.
4	What monocular depth cues allow humans to perceive depth in two-dimensional paintings or photographs?	Linear perspective, relative size, interposition (occlusion), texture gradient, light and shadow, and relative height.
5	Which neurotransmitter is critical for motor movement at neuromuscular junctions, parasympathetic function, and memory consolidation?	Acetylcholine (ACh); severe degeneration of cholinergic neurons in the basal forebrain is a hallmark of Alzheimer's disease.
6	What are the distinct emotional and cognitive functions of the amygdala versus the hippocampus?	The amygdala processes emotional valence, fear conditioning, and threat detection; the hippocampus consolidates explicit declarative memories from short-term into long-term storage.
7	What physiological functions does serotonin (5-HT) regulate, and how do SSRIs treat clinical depression?	Regulates mood, emotional stability, sleep cycles, and appetite; SSRIs selectively inhibit the presynaptic serotonin transporter (SERT), prolonging serotonin activity in the synaptic cleft.
8	What is the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the adult central nervous system, and what class of medications enhances its action?	GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid); benzodiazepines and barbiturates act as positive allosteric modulators on GABA-A receptors to produce anxiolytic and sedative effects.
9	How do Place Theory and Frequency Theory explain pitch perception across different sound frequencies?	Place theory explains high-frequency sounds by maximum basilar membrane displacement near the cochlear base; Frequency theory (and the Volley principle) explains low-frequency sounds by the synchronous firing rate of auditory nerve fibers.
10	Why is glutamate considered both essential for neuroplasticity and dangerous in acute brain injury?	It is the primary excitatory neurotransmitter required for Long-Term Potentiation (LTP); excessive release triggers excitotoxicity, flooding neurons with Ca2+ and causing apoptotic cell death.
11	What autonomic vital reflexes are coordinated by the medulla oblongata?	Heart rate, vascular vasomotor tone, respiratory rhythmicity, swallowing, coughing, sneezing, and vomiting reflexes.
12	Define the Gestalt grouping principles of Proximity, Similarity, and Closure.	Proximity: objects close to one another are grouped together; Similarity: visually similar objects are grouped; Closure: the mind automatically fills in gaps to perceive an incomplete figure as complete.
13	What is the resting membrane potential of a neuron, and what primary mechanism maintains it?	Approximately -70 mV; maintained by the electrogenic Na+/K+ ATPase pump (3 Na+ out, 2 K+ in) and non-gated K+ leak channels.
14	What functional deficits characterize Broca's aphasia versus Wernicke's aphasia?	Broca's aphasia (frontal lobe) causes non-fluent, halting, telegraphic speech with preserved comprehension; Wernicke's aphasia (temporal lobe) causes fluent, grammatically correct nonsense speech with severely impaired comprehension.
15	How do dopamine imbalances correlate with Parkinson's disease and Schizophrenia?	Parkinson's is caused by loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra; Schizophrenia is associated with excessive dopamine activity in the mesolimbic pathway (D2 receptors).
16	State Weber's Law of psychophysics and explain its significance.	The Just Noticeable Difference (JND / difference threshold) between two stimuli is a constant proportion (k) of the original stimulus intensity: ΔI / I = k.
17	Explain the Gate Control Theory of pain proposed by Melzack and Wall.	A neural 'gate' in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord modulates pain signals; non-painful tactile input via large A-beta fibers activates inhibitory interneurons to close the gate, reducing pain transmission from small A-delta and C fibers.
18	Compare the distribution, lighting conditions, and visual acuity of retinal rods versus cones.	Rods: peripheral, scotopic (low-light/night), achromatic, high convergence (low acuity); Cones: concentrated in the fovea, photopic (bright light), trichromatic color vision, 1:1 wiring (high acuity).
19	What are the primary functional zones of a neuron, and in what direction does an electrical nerve impulse travel?	Dendrites (receptive input) -> Soma (cell body) -> Axon Hillock (action potential trigger zone) -> Axon (conduction) -> Axon Terminals (synaptic output).
20	What does the All-or-None Law state regarding neuronal action potentials?	Once the membrane threshold of excitation (~ -55 mV) is reached at the axon hillock, an action potential fires at full and constant amplitude; stronger stimuli increase firing frequency, not action potential size.
21	How do the Young-Helmholtz Trichromatic Theory and Hering's Opponent-Process Theory together explain human color vision?	Trichromatic theory explains color reception at the retina via three cone photoreceptor types (red, green, blue); Opponent-Process theory explains downstream neural processing via paired antagonistic channels (red-green, blue-yellow, black-white).
22	What sensory structure within the inner ear contains the auditory receptor hair cells?	The Organ of Corti, situated on the basilar membrane within the cochlea.
23	What are endorphins, and how do they modulate nociceptive (pain) signaling?	Endogenous opioid neuropeptides that bind mu-opioid receptors in the periaqueductal gray and spinal cord to inhibit substance P release, producing analgesia and euphoria.
24	Which sensory modality bypasses the thalamus on its direct pathway to the primary cortex?	Olfaction (the sense of smell), which projects directly to the olfactory bulb and piriform cortex.
25	What is sensory transduction?	The physiological process by which sensory receptors convert physical environmental energy (light, sound waves, mechanical pressure) into electrical neural action potentials.
26	What is the primary motor coordination role of the cerebellum?	Fine-tuning motor precision, timing, coordination of voluntary movement, posture, and motor procedural learning (e.g., riding a bicycle).
27	What are the two primary binocular depth cues, and how do they operate?	Retinal Disparity: the brain calculates depth by comparing the slightly different horizontal images received by each eye; Convergence: the inward neuromuscular turning of the eyes when focusing on nearby objects.
28	What four outcomes are analyzed in Signal Detection Theory, and what do d' and β represent?	Outcomes: Hit, Miss, False Alarm, Correct Rejection; d' represents the observer's sensory sensitivity, while β (or c) represents their cognitive decision response criterion.
29	What is the core premise of Gestalt psychology regarding sensory perception?	The human brain organizes sensory elements into holistic, structured perceptions: 'The whole is other (or greater) than the sum of its parts.'
30	What is the primary neuroendocrine regulatory role of the hypothalamus?	Maintains physiological homeostasis (temperature, thirst, hunger, circadian rhythms) and controls the pituitary gland (the 4 F's: fighting, fleeing, feeding, and mating).
31	What did Roger Sperry and Michael Gazzaniga discover in split-brain patients whose corpus callosum was severed?	Hemispheric lateralization: an image flashed in the left visual field (right hemisphere) can be drawn with the left hand, but the patient cannot verbally name it because language is lateralized to the left hemisphere.
32	What vital homeostatic and protective roles do astrocytes play in the central nervous system?	They maintain extracellular ion balance (buffering K+), uptake and recycle neurotransmitters (glutamate), provide metabolic glucose support, and form the blood-brain barrier via perivascular end-feet.